Florence

Medieval monasteries perfect apple cultivation - develop new varieties, cider becomes safer than water to drink

Pepper accepted as dowry and rent payment in Europe - 'peppercorn rent' enters legal vocabulary, spices function as currency

First recorded cessio bonorum in Italian city-states - debtor surrenders all assets to creditors in exchange for discharge, prototype of bankruptcy

Societas (partnership) forms standardized in Italian city-states - general and limited partnerships distinguished in notarial practice

Florence establishes specialized bankruptcy court - Mercanzia handles insolvency cases with summary procedure

Medici bank pioneers double-entry bookkeeping for international branches - creating internal law of accounts, foundation for corporate accounting

Medici bank develops holding company structure - separate partnerships in each city under central control, early corporate group